12. The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性

Significantly, these rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.

Although these rules are part of the rules and regulations of the grammar, they suffice to explain how language is “creative”, and how speakers with “finite” minds have the ability to produce and understand an infinite set of sentences. That is, the recursive property captures the ability of language to generate more constituents to a sentence and enables speakers to repeat syntactic constituents within the same sentence.

由于这些短语规则的循环性，运用它们可以造出无数句子，这些句子又可以是无限长的。

这些规则虽然只是语法规则的一部分，却足以解释为什么语言具有创造性，为什么说话人的记忆力是有限的，却能表达并理解无限的句子。这就是说，循环性体现了语言中的句子能够有更多的成分，并且使说话者能够在同一个句子中重复一些句法成分。

13. X-bar theory   X标杆理论

NP/VP/AP/PP all must contain one obligatory word, we call XP. This means that XP must contain X, where XP stands respectively for NP/VP/AP/PP and X stands for N/V/A/P.

The rule modified as: XP → (Specifier)X(Complement).

X 标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则理论。根据该理论，短语由指示语、核心词和补语组成，其中指示语和补语可有可无，但核心词却不可缺少。

14. Syntactic movement and movement rules 句法位移和移位规则

a)NP movement 名词词组位移

NP-movement occurs when a sentence changes from the active voice to the passive voice.

Example: The man beat the child. / The child was beaten by the man.

Not all NP-movement are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice.

Example: It seems they are quite fit for the job. / They seem quite fit for the job.

NP “they” has moved from the subject position of the embedded clause to the matrix clause.

名词词组从原先所处的位置移至另一位置的句法现象叫做名词词组位移。例如，在主动语态句中当主语的名词词组和充当宾语的名词词组可以逆向移位，使句子转换成被动语态。

并不是所有的名词词组位移都和主动语态转被动语态相关。示例中的they由从句的主语位置位移到了主句的主语位置。

b)WH movement WH位移

WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative. WH-movement is syntactically required when the sentence changes from a statement into a question.

WH位移能把句子从肯定句变为疑问句，在英语中不可缺少的。

c)Other types of movement 其它类型的位移

（1）General questions (一般疑问句) in English may also involve syntactic movement with AUX-movement. AUX-movement is the movement of an auxiliary verb, such as be/have/do/will/can/should, to the sentence-initial position.

Example: She is an English professor. / Is she an English professor?

一般疑问句也会通过助动词移位引起句法移位，助动词移位即助动词移到句首的移位，助动词有be/have/do/will/can/should。

（2）For stylistic purposes, a post-verb adjective in an adverbial clause beginning with “though” may propose to the sentence initial position.

Example:

Though she was sick, the woman fought with the wolf and saved her children. /

Sick though she was, the woman fought with the wolf and saved her children.

由于文体的原因，以though开头的状语从句中位于动词后的形容词可以移到句首。

15.D-structure and S-structure深层结构和表层结构

What syntactic movement suggests for the study of the grammar is that a sentence structure may have two levels of syntactic representation, one that exists before movement takes place, and the other that occurs after movement takes place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representations are commonly termed as D-structure (the deep structure) and S-structure (the surface structure). It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure, while the application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence from the level of D-structure to that of S-structure.

句法位移对语法研究的启示是，一个句子结构可以有两个层次的句法表现，一个存在于位移发生之前，一个存在于位移发生之后。在正规的语言学研究中，这两种句法表现称为深层结构和表层结构。短语结构规则通过插入词汇在深层结构上生成句子，而应用句法位移规则又把句子从深层结构转化到表层结构。

Since syntactic movement does not occur to all sentences, the D-structure and S-structure of some sentences look exactly the same at different levels of representation.

由于并非所有句子都能发生句法位移，因而一个句子的深层结构和表层结构在不同的表现层次上是完全相同的。

16.Move α – a general movement rule 移动α规则

Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules, that is, the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move Alpha. Alpha is a Greek symbol used here to represent any constituent, and what Move Alpha says is “move any constituent to any place”.

It is too powerful, so the grammar should include some conditions which will restrain the movement power of the rule and which will stimulate that only “certain constituents” can move to only “certain positions.”

移动α规则是一条支配句法成分位移的普遍原则。如果X标杆理论规则将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合起来一样，该规则综合了所有的位移规则，可以解释所有语言中的一切位移现象。

如果一个成分可以移到任意位置，那么就会又不合乎语法的句子出现。规则应该有一些条件来限制移位能力，使得只有“某些成分”可以移动到“某些位置”。